Adverbs - Sanskrit Language Tools

By Suffix | Miscellaneous | Noun Cases | Other

Source: Whitney pp.403-413, §§ 1097-1122

There are several ways that Sanskrit conveys an adverbial sense. All Sanskrit adverbs are fixed-form, or indeclinable. The most common way to form an adverb is by adding a suffix to a pronoun, noun, or adjective. In other situations, certain cases of nouns are used in an adverbial way. There are also verbal prefixes that act as adverbs, as well as a group of miscellaneous adverbs.

Adverbs by Suffix

These kinds of adverbs are formed by adding a suffix to a pronoun, noun, or adjective. The root word provides the main meaning while the suffix creates the adverb. This type of suffix is almost never used “prepositionally” (presumably by this, Whitney means in a compound). Each suffix forms a particular type of adverb, such as an ablative adverb connoting the meaning “from X”, those with a temporal sense (adverbs of time), or a numerical sense (such as two-fold, etc). The main types of suffixes are listed below.

The suffix –तस्

The suffix –तस् is used to make adverbs having an ablative sense. Examples of these are:

From pronominal roots, अतस, इतस् (both mean “from this, than this, hence”), ततस् (“from that place, thence”), यतस (“from which place, whence, wherefrom, whither”, कुतस् (“from whom, from where”, अमुतस् (“from there, from above, from heaven”, स्वतस् (“of one’s own accord”).
From noun and adjective stems are formed मुखतस् (“from the mouth, orally”), अग्रतस (“in front, before”), ऋभुतस् (“cleverly, skillfully”), ऋक्तस् (“from/with reference to a verse of praise”), हृत्तस् (“from the heart”), शीर्षतस् (“from the top, at the head”), जन्मतस (“from/according to birth”), नस्तस (“from or into the nose, nasally”, यजुष्टस् (“from a sacrificer, on the authority of the Yajur Veda”), पारतस (“beyond, from the opposite bank”), अन्यतस (“from another”), अन्यतरतस (“on one of two sides”), सर्वतस (“everywhere”), दक्षिणतस (“from the right or south”), अभीपतस् (“from the water or clouds”). This type is more frequent in the later period
From prepositions are formed अभितस् (“near, to, towards”), परितस् (“all around, round about, everywhere”), अन्तितस् (“from near”).

These are often used in an ablative construction:

कुतः कालात्, “since what time?”
अतो भूयः, “more than that”
ततः षष्ठात्, “from that sixth”
अतोऽनयेन, “with any other than this”
सर्वतो भयात्, “from all fear”
कुतश्चिद्देशादागत्य, “arriving from some region or other”
पुरादितः, “from this city”
तस्मात्परेताकायतः, “from that dead body”

But often times it loses its ablative sense and takes on more of a locative adverbial meaning:

अगरतस्, “in front”
अस्मत्समीपतस्, “in our presence”
धर्मतस्, “in accordance with duty”
छागतस्, “with reference to the goat”
गुणतोऽधिकः, “superior in virtue”

The Suffix –त्र

The suffix –त्र, or in the older language –त्रा, forms adverbs that have a locative sense, and these also sometimes form a locative construction. There are relatively fewer of these kinds of adverbs compared with those made from –तस्, but they are nonetheless important. These are:

From pronominal or quasi-pronominal stems with -त्र: अत्र (“here”), तत्र (“there”), यत्र (“where” relative), कुत्र (“where?” interrogative), अमुत्र (“there, in the other world”),
अन्यत्र (“elsewhere”), विस्वत्र (“everywhere, always”), सर्वत्र (“everywhere, always”), उभयत्र (“in both places”), अपरत्र (“in another place”), उत्तरत्र (“in what follows, subsequently”), इतरत्र (“elsewhere, on the other hand”), अन्यतरत्र (“either way”?), पूरवत्र (“previously, above”), परत्र (“elsewhere”), समानत्र (“in the same place”), एकत्र (“one and the same, in one spot”), अनेकत्र (“in many places”), एकैकत्र (“singly”)
From pronominal or quasi-pronominal stems with -त्रा: अस्मत्रा (“to us, with us, among us”), सत्रा (“together”), पुरुत्रा (“variously”), बहुत्रा (“amongst many, to manyt”), दक्षिणत्रा (“on the right side”)
From ordinary noun stems with -त्रा: देवत्रा (“among the gods”), मर्त्यत्रा (“among mortal men”), पुरुषत्रा (“among men”), मनुष्यत्रा (“among men”), पाकत्रा (“in simplicity, simply”), शयुत्रा (“on a couch”), कुरुपञ्चालत्रा (“among the Kurus and Pañcālas”).

Examples of this construction in the locative sense are:

हस्तादक्षिणत्रा (“in the right hand”)
यत्राऽधि (“in which”)
एकत्रा पुरुषे (“in a single man”)
अत्र मारात्मके (“in this murderous creature”)
प्रभुत्वं तत्र युज्यते। (“sovereignty befits him”)

The locative case is also used to express the destination of a motion:

तत्र गच्छ (“go there!”)
पथो देवत्रा यानान् (“roads that go to the gods”)

The Suffixes ह, तात्, and हि

The three suffixes ह, तात्, and हि are also suffixes of locality:

ह is used in इह, कुह, and the Vedic विश्वह (or विश्वहा, विश्वाहा). इह is sometimes used with locative-case value: इह समये meaning “at this juncture.”
तात् is added to words already having a local or directive value, such as to adverbial accusatives—प्राक्तात् (“from the front, from the east”), उदक्तात् (“from above, from the north”), तावत्तात् (“just so much”); to adverbial ablatives आरात्तात् (“from a distant place”), उत्तरात्तात् (“from the north”), पराकात्तात् (“from a distance”); and to prepositional adverbs पश्चातात् (“from behind”), अधस्तात् (“from underneath, below”), अवस्तात (“below”), परस्तात (“further away, further on, towards”), पुरस्तात (“before, forward, in front, from the front”), बहिष्टात् (“outside”), and the slightly irregular form of उपरिष्टात् (“above, from above” – the addition of the –ष्– being irregular).
हि is only used in a few instance such as उत्तराहि (“northernly, from the north”) and दक्षिणाहि (“far to the right, in the south”). Elsewhere (§ 1103) Whitney mentions the suffix –र्हि, which he includes with दा, but seems more closely related to हि. The suffix –र्हि forms तर्हि (“”), एतर्हि (“”), यर्हि (“”), कर्हि (“”), and अमुर्हि (“”).

The Suffixes –था and the use of इति

The suffix –था creates adverbs of manner or how things are done. These are formed especially from pronominal roots and stems: तथा (“in that manner, thus”), यथा (“in which manner, just as”), कथा (“how, whence, why”), इत्था (“thus, here”), and the rare इमथा (“in this way”) and अमुथा (“in this manner”), along with अथ or अथा (“now”). Adverbs with –था created from adjective and noun stems include: विश्वथा (“in every way, at all times”), सर्वथा (“in every way”), अन्यथा (“otherwise”), उभयथा (“in both ways, in both cases”), अपरथा (“later, distantly”?), इतरथा (“in another way, perversely”), यतरथा (“in which of two ways”), यतमथा (“in which of many ways”), कतरथा (“in which of two ways”), कतमथा (“in which of many ways”), पूर्वथा (“previously”), प्रत्नथा (“formerly, as of old”), ऊर्ध्वथा (“upwards, erect”), तिरश्चथा (“aside, secretly”), एकथा (“singly?”), ऋतुथा (“at the proper time”), नामथा (“by name”), and एवथा (“just so”).

The suffixes –ति is found in extremely common इति (“thus” and quote marker) which is an adverb of manner. Whitney is not clear whether it is used as an adverbial suffix in any other situations, but he goes into detail on the uses of इति with the following examples of the specialized “thus” or quotation marking usage:

ब्रह्मजायेऽयमितिचेदवोचन्। (“if they have said ‘this is a Brahman’s wife’”)
तं देवाब्रुवन्व्रात्य किं नु तिष्ठसीति। (“the gods said to him, ‘Vrātya, why do you stand?’”)

Or more pregnantly:

यः श्रद्दधाति सन्ति देवा इति (“whoever has faith that the gods exist”)
तं व्याघ्रम्मुनिरमूषिकोऽयमितिपश्यति। (“the sage looks upon that tiger as being really a mouse”)
यूयं किमिति सीदथ (“why (lit. alleging what reason) do you sit?”)

Sometimes इति is used in a less specialized way to mark onomatopoeia or to indicate a gesture:

बहिष्टे अस्तु बालिति। (“let it come out of you with a splash”)
इत्यग्रे कृषत्यथेऽति। (“he plows first this way, then this way”)

Or points forward to something to be said:

यन्न्वित्याहुरन्यानि छन्दाङ्सि वर्षीयाङ्सि कस्माद्बृहत्युच्यत इति। (“when now they say thus: ‘the other metres are greater; why is the bṛhatī spoken?”)

Or it is used to make a number of derivative compounds:

इतिथ (“the so-many-eth”)
इतिवत् (“in this fashion”)
इत्यर्थम् (“for this purpose”)
इतिहास (“a story, legend”)

The Suffixes –दा, –दि, and –धा

The suffix –दा is used to make adverbs of time. These are almost only from pronominal roots: तदा (“then”), यदा (“when” relative), कदा (“when?” interrogative), इदा (“now”), सदा (“always”). But also सर्वदा (“at all times”), अन्यदा (“at another time”), एकदा (“at the same time, at once”), नित्यदा (“always”). A possibly related suffix is –दानीम् from which are made: इदानीम् (“now”), तदानीम् (“then, at that time”), विश्वदानीम् (“at all times”), त्वदानीम् (“sometimes”).

The suffix –दि is related to –दा but is only found in the word यदि (“if”).

The suffix –धा forms adverbs especially from numerals signifying “-fold,” “times,” “ways,” etc. Thus, एकधा (“singly, simply”), द्विधा / द्विधा / द्वेधा (“twofold”), त्रिधा (“three-fold”), षड्ढा / षोढा / षड्धा (“sixfold”), द्वादशधा (“twelvefold”), एकान्नविङ्चतिधा (“21 fold?”), सहस्रधा (“thousand fold”), etc. Words with quasi-numerical character are: अनेकधा (“in various ways, often”), कतिधा (“how many times? how many ways?”), ततिधा (“in so many parts”), बहुधा (“in many ways”), पुरुधा (“variously, frequently”), विश्वधा (“in every way”), शश्वधा (“again and again”), अपरिमितधा (“into an infinite number of parts or pieces”), यावद्धा (“in a great many ways or parts”), तावद्धा (“in so many ways”), मासधा (“monthly”). A few cases of its use with nouns and adjective stems occur: मित्रधा (“in a friendly manner”), प्रियधा (“lovingly”), ऋजुधा (“in a straight direction”), उरुधा (“in many ways”), चित्रधा (“in manifold ways”), बहिर्धा (“outside, outwardly”).

The Suffixes –स्, –द्युस्, and –शस्

The suffix –स् makes a few multiplicative adverbs. These are द्विस् (“twice”), त्रिस् (“thrice”), चतुर् (probably for चतुर्स्) (“four times”). Interestingly, the corresponding word for “once” or सकृत् is a compound rather than a derivative. Related words are पञ्चकृत्वस् (“5 times”), नवकृत्वस् (“9 times”), अपरिमितकृत्वस् (“indefinite number of times”), etc.

The quasi-suffix –द्युस् is a case-form of दिव् “day” and forms adverbs relating to the day: अन्येद्युस् (“on another day”), उभयेद्युस् (“on both days”), पूर्वेद्युस् (“on the day before, yesterday”).

The suffix –शस् with numeral or quantitative stems is used to form many adverbs of quantity, measure, or manner: एकशस् (“one by one”), शतशस् (“by the hundreds”), ऋतुशस् (“at the proper time of day”), पच्छस् (“foot by foot”), अक्षरशस् (“syllable by syllable”), गणशस् (“by troop, by class, in a crowd”), स्तम्बशस् (“by clumps or tufts”), परुश्शस् (“limb by limb”), तावच्छस् (“in such and such a manner”), सर्वशस् (“wholly”), मुख्यशस् (“principally”), कृछ्रशस् (“stingily”), and मन्मशस् (“as minded, each according to their heart’s desire”).

The Suffixes –वत् and –सात्

The suffix –वत् is used often to make adverbs signifying “after the manner of” or “like.” It is actually the accusative form of the suffix –वन्त् used in an adverbial sense. Examples are, for instance, अङ्गिरस्वत्, मनुष्वत्, जमदग्निवत्, पूर्ववत्, प्रतनवत्, पुराणवत्, काकतालीयवत्.

The suffix –सात् turns nouns into quasi-adverbs signifying “in” or “into the condition” or “the possession of” whatever is indicated by the noun. These adverbs are only used with verbs of being, becoming, or making, most often कृ and भू, but also अस्, गम्, या, and नी. Interestingly, the –स– of –सात् is not liable for conversion into –ष– due to saṃdhi rules. Examples of the usage of these words are:

सर्वकर्माणि भस्मसात् कुरुते। – “reduces all deeds to ashes”
लोकोऽयम् दस्युसाद् भवेद्। – “this world would become a prey to barbarians”
यस्य ब्राह्मणसात् सर्वं वित्तमासीत्। – “whose whole property was given to Brahmans”
नियतं भस्मसाद् याति। – “it is inevitably reduced to ashes”
अग्निनात्मसात्कृत्वा। – “having taken the fires to one’s self”

Miscellaneous Adverbs

Some adverbs cannot be traced back to an original noun or adjective. These are rare:

प्रातर् – “early”
सनुतर् – “away”
दक्षिणित् – “with the right hand”
चिकित्वित् – “with consideration”
नूनम् – “now”
नानानम् – “variously”

Another small class found in the epics repeat a noun to form an adverb:

हस्ताहस्ति – “hand to hand”
रथारथि – “chariot against chariot”
कर्णाकर्णि – “ear to ear”

Case-Forms Used as Adverbs

There are many cases of adverbs formed from cases of nouns that are now only extant in the adverbial form. There are also many adverbs formed from cases of known nouns and adjectives. These latter are distinguished from the regular uses of these cases by some difference in application or an irregularity of form.

All cases other than the vocative can be used in an adverbial sense, though some are relatively or extremely rare.

Nominative

Very rarely, the nominative is “stereotyped into an adverbial value” as in the Vedic किस् “whether”, interrogative particle, and its compounds, the negative particles, नकिस्, माकिस्.

Accusative

This is the case that is most frequently and widely used in an adverbial sense. It is often the neuter singular form of the accusative that is used in such a way, and it is frequently at the end of a compound that this form is found. The feminine singular is also sometimes used especially in adverbial endings of comparison. Examples with different stems are:

Pronominal stems: यद् (“if, when, that”), तद् (“then”), किम् (“why, whether”), इदम् (“now, here”), अदस् (“yonder”), कद्, कम्, इद् (“even, just, only, indeed, assuredly”), किम् (“whence, why, what”), चिद् (“even, indeed, also”), स्मद् (“together, at once, at the same time”), सुमद् (“together, along with”), ईम्, सीम्, चेद् (“when, if”), कुचिद्, नकीम्, माकीम्, आकिम्
Noun stems: नाम (“by name”), सुखम् (“easily, pleasantly”), कामम् (“as desired”), नक्तम् (“by night”), रहस् (“secretly, privately”), ओषम् (“vehemently”)
Adjective stems: सत्यम् (“truly”), चिरम् (“for a long time”), पूर्वम् (“formerly, previously”), नित्यम् (“always”), भूयस् (“most, exceedingly”), विश्रब्धम् (“confidingly, quietly”), प्रकाशम् (“openly, publically”)
Obscure forms: तूष्णीम् (“silently, quitely”), सायम् (“in the evening”), साकम् (“together”), प्रायस (“for the most part”), ईषत् (“slightly, a little”), अम्नस् (“unexpectedly”), बहिस् (“outside”), मिथु (“alternately”), मिथस् (“together, reciprocally”), मुहु (“suddenly”), मुहुस् (“suddenly”), जातु (“at all, ever”), मद्रिक् (“to me, towards me”), निणिक् (“secretly, mysteriously”), उशधक् (“?”), आनुषक् (“in continuous order”), आयुषक् (“with the cooperation of men”), अनुष्ठु (“presently, immediately”), सुष्ठु (“aptly, fitly”), युगपत् (“simultaneously”)

Instrumental

The instrumental is often used in an adverbial way, usually in the singular but sometimes in the plural:

Pronominal stems: एना (“here, there”), अया (“thus”), कया (“in which manner?”), अना (“hereby”), अमा (“at home”), अमुया (“in that manner”)
Noun stems: क्षणेन (“instantly”), अशेषेण (“completely”), विशेषेण (“especially”), दिवा (“by day”), दिष्ट्या (“fortunately”), सहसा (“suddenly”), अक्तुभिस् (“by night”)
Adjective stems: अखिलेन (“wholly”), प्रायेण (“mostly”), दक्षिणेन (“to the south”), उत्तरेण (“to the north”), अन्तरेण (“within”), चिरेण (“long”), शनैस् (“slowly”), शनकैस् (“slowly”), उच्चैस् (“on high”), नीचैस् (“below”), पराचैस् (“afar”), तविषीभिस् (“mightily”)
Other more doubtful cases: तिरश्चता (“transversely”), देवता (“divinely”), बाहुता (“in the arms”), सस्वर्ता (“secretly”), द्विता (“doubly so, indeed”), तादीत्ना (“at that time”), ईर्मा (“here”), मृषा (“in vain”), वृथा (“at will”), सचा (“near, at hand”), अस्था (“at once”), मुधा (“uselessly”), अधुना (“at this time”)

Dative

The dative is rarely used as an adverb, and there are only a few cases of it: अपराय (“for the future”), चिराय (“long”), अर्थाय (“for the sake of”), and अह्नाय (“presently”).

Ablative

The ablative is “not infrequently used adverbially.” Examples are:

Pronominal stems: कस्मात् (“why?”), अकस्मात् (“casually, unexceptionally”), आत् (“afterwards, then”), तात् (“thus”), यात् (“in as much as”)
Noun stems: आसात् (“near”), आरात् (“afar”), बलात् (“forcibly”), कुतूहलात् (“emulously”), सकाशात् (“on the part of”)
Adjectives stems: दूरात् (“afar”), नीचात् (“below”), पश्चात् (“behind”), साक्षात् (“plainly, actually”), समन्तात् (“completely”), अचिरात् (“not long”), प्रत्यक्षतमात् (“most obviously”), प्रत्यन्तात् (“to the end”)
Other examples: अपाकात् (“from afar”), अमात् (“near by”), सनात् (“from of old”), उत्तरात् (“from the north”), अधरात् (“below”)

Genitive

The genitive is almost never used as an adverb. The few exceptions are from the older language: अक्तोस् (“by night”), वस्तोस् (“by day”), चिरस्य (“long”).

Locative

The locative is sometimes used in an adverbial sense, but the examples are relatively few: आके (“near”), आरे (“afar”), दूरे (“afar”), अभिस्वरे (“behind”), अस्तमीके (“at home”), ऋते (“without”), अग्रे (“in front”), स्थाने (“suitably”), सपदि (“immediately”), –अर्थे and –कृते (common in composition, “for the sake of”), अपरीषु (“in after time”), आदौ (“first”), रहसि (“in secret”).

Adverbial Prefixes

The verbal prefixes listed elsewhere are generally adverbial in meaning.

Other Miscellaneous Adverbs

Other adverbs are particles of different types: assertive, negative, interrogative, comparison, time, manner, etc.

Assertive

These include अङ्ग (“indeed”), हन्त (“look!, oh!, alas!”), किल (“indeed, verily”), खलु (“truly”), तु (“but, pray!”), वै (“indeed”), वाव (“just, indeed”), हि (“for, on account of, indeed”), हिन (“for, because”), उ (“oh, damn, and”), अह (“surely”), ह (“indeed”), घ (“at least, surely”), समह (“anyhow, somehow”), स्म (“ever, always, indeed”), and भल (“certainly, indeed”).

Negative

These are the negative particles: न and मा and their derivatives, such as नु (Vedas), नहि (न + हि), नेद् (= न + इद, “lest”) and in some compounds like नकिस् (“no one, nobody”), माकिस् (“may not”), माकीम् (“may not, let not”), नचिरम् (“not long, for a short time,”), माचिरम् (“not long, shortly”), नपुङ्सक (“not a many, eunuch”).

Interrogative

The interrogative particles are कद्, किम्, कुविद, स्विद्, ननु.

Comparison

The comparison particles are इव and यथा.

Place

Most of the place particles have already been mentioned except क्व (“where”).

Time

Particles of time are: नू (“now”), नूनम (“now”), अद्य (“today”), सद्यस् (“today”), सदिवस (“today”), ह्यस् (“yesterday”), श्वस (“tomorrow”), ज्योक् (“long”), पुनर् (“again”).

Manner

Particles of manner include नाना (“variously”), नानानम् (“variously”), सस्वर् (“secretly”).