Sources: Hart pp. 156-164.

This section covers the perfect stem, the periphrastic perfect (a perfect formation using an auxiliary verb), and the perfect active and middle participles. (Past participles have been dealt with above). The perfect is one of four verb systems in the Sanskrit language. The four systems are the Present System, the Perfect System, the Aorist System, and the Future System. So far, the Present and Future systems have been covered, while both the Perfect and Aorist systems are composed of past tenses. In general, it can be said that the perfect indicates past actions whose duration is distinct and has been completed, while the aorist refers to past actions of which neither the duration nor completion of the action is definite. Hindu grammarians have even described the perfect as indicating “the narration of facts not witnessed by the narrator, but there is no evidence of its being either exclusively or distinctively so employed at any period.”1 So, it seems that the perfect, aorist, and even imperfect have often been used interchangeable to refer to any past actions.

Formation of the Simple Perfect

Like the athematic present and imperfect tenses, the simple perfect has a strong and weak root form. The strong form is used for all three persons of the active singular. The rules for strengthening a perfect stem are as follows:

  1. A final vowel takes either a guṇa or vṛddhi in the first singular active, guṇa in the second singular active, and vṛddhi in the third singular active.
    • कृ → चकर / चकार (1st sing.), चकर्थ (2nd sing.), चकार (3rd sing.)
    • भू is an exception and forms बभूव्– for both strong and weak stems.
  2. Medial –अ– before a single consonant is optionally vṛddhied in the first person singular active and definitely vṛddhied in the third person singular active.
  3. The root विद् has a strong stem: वेद् and a weak stem: विद्.

The simple perfect stem also involves reduplication following the rules of reduplication for Class III verbs with some extra stipulations. Reduplication refers to repeating a modified version of the verb root in front of the normal stem. The rules for reduplication for the simple perfect are:2

  1. The consonant for the reduplicating syllable is generally the first consonant of the root:
    • प्रच्छ् → पप्रच्छ्
    • श्रि → शिश्रि
    • बुध् → बुबुध्
  2. If the initial consonant is an aspirate, it is replaced by a non-aspirate in the reduplicating syllable:
    • धा → दधा
    • भृ → बभृ
  3. A palatal is substituted for a guttural or ह्:
    • कृ → चकृ
    • खिद् → चिखिद्
    • ग्रभ् → जग्रभ्
    • हृ → जहृ
  4. If the first letter of the root is a sibilant (one of the “s” sounds: श, ष, or स) followed by a non-nasal stop (क, ख, च, छ, त, थ, or प, फ), then the consonant of the reduplicating syllable is the stop, which is modified according to the rules above:
    • स्था → तस्था
    • स्कन्द् → चस्कन्द्
    • स्खल् → चस्खल्
    • श्चुत् → चुश्चुत्
    • स्पृश् → पस्पृश्
    • स्फुट् → पुस्फुट्

    If the root begins with a sibilant followed by a nasal or semi-vowel, then the first rule applies:

    • स्मृ → सस्मृ
    • स्ना → सस्ना
    • श्लिष् → शिश्लिष्
  5. A long vowel in the root syllable is shortened in the reduplicating syllable:
    =

    • दा → ददा
    • भी → बिभी
  6. The vowel ऋ is replaced by –इ– in Class III verbs and by –अ– in the perfect stem:
    • भृ → बभृ
    • पृच् → पपृच्
    • कृ → चकृ
    • कृष् → चकृष्
  7. * A root with an initial अ– before a single final consonant, repeats the अ– which fuses with the initial one to form आ-:
    • अस् → आस्
  8. * Roots which undergo saṃprasāraṇa (संप्रसाराण)2a do so for the reduplicating syllable in strong forms and for both the reduplicating syllable and the root in weak forms:
    • गृह् → जग्रह्– or जग्राह्– (strong)3 / जगृह्– (weak)
    • स्वप् → सुष्वप– or सुष्वाप– / सुषुप्
    • वच् → उवच्– or उवाच्– / ऊच्
  9. * Unless the initial vowel is a result of saṃprasāraṇa from rule 8 above (such as वच् above), roots which begin with an इ– or an उ– before a single final consonant, repeats the consonant in weak forms, which fuses with the initial root vowel to make it long. In strong forms, the root vowel is guṇated and the reduplicating vowel is unstrengthened but followed by its semi-vowel to which the root guṇated vowel is joined.
    • इष् → इयेष्– (strong) / ईष् (weak)
  10. * Roots that begin with a long vowel (either by nature or because it is followed by two or more consonants) never make the simple perfect but always form the periphrastic perfect. The exception is आप् for which both the strong and weak form are: आप्–
  11. * In their weak forms, roots beginning with a single consonant that is repeated unchanged in the reduplication followed by a medial –अ– and then another single consonant contract their reduplicating syllable into the root and the vowel changes to –ए-:
    • पत् → पेत्– (weak), पपत्-/पपात्- (strong)

Back to Top

Simple Perfect Endings

The endings for the simple perfect are listed below. For perfect stems ending in a consonant the intermediate union vowel इ is inserted:

Active

Singular Dual Plural
1st Person –अ / -औ4 -व -म
2nd Person -थ -अथुः -अ
3rd Person –अ / -औ -अतुः -उः

Middle

Singular Dual Plural
1st Person -ए -वहे -महे
2nd Person -से -आथे -ध्वे
3rd Person -ए -आते -रे

 

Back to Top

Example Simple Perfect Conjugation

Active

Singular Dual Plural
1st Person चकर / चकार चकृव चकृम
2nd Person चकर्थ चक्रथुः चक्र
3rd Person चकार चक्रतुः चक्रुः

Middle

सेव् – serve, honor, frequent, inhabit

Singular Dual Plural
1st Person सिषेवे सिषेविवहे सिषेविमहे
2nd Person सिषेविषे सिषेवाथे सिषेविध्वे
3rd Person सिषेवे सिषेवाते सिषेविरे

 

Back to Top

The Passive Perfect

The formation of the perfects passive, like the future tense, is identical in form to the perfect middle. This is true for both the simple perfect and the periphrastic perfect.

Formation of the Periphrastic Perfect

The periphrastic perfect uses an auxiliary verb, either कृ or अस् (rarely भू) attached to a modified stem. This is used instead of the simple perfect for:

  1. All verbs beginning with a long vowel,
  2. All verbs beginning with a short vowel followed by two or more consonants,
  3. All causatives,
  4. All verbs that make their present stems by adding a –य्– or –अय्– (i.e. class X verbs and denominatives)
  5. The desiderative and intensative (see below).

A verb makes either the simple perfect or the periphrastic perfect but never both. Most verbs use the simple perfect for the primary verb and the periphrastic perfect for the causative.

The periphrastic perfect is formed by adding –आम् to the present stem and then adding the perfect form of the auxiliary verb (कृ, अस्, or भू) that corresponds in person and number with the subject. If you are making a causative periphrastic perfect then the causative stem must be used. For कृ whose causative stem is कारय-, the causative periphrastic perfect 3rd person singular (“He caused to do”) would be either: कारयामास or कारयां चकार.5

Conjugation of the Periphrastic Perfect

The conjugation of दा is given as an example of the causative perfect in the active voice (using both auxiliary verbs अस् and कृ), while आस् is given as an example of the perfect periphrastic middle voice:

Active

Singular Dual Plural
1st Person दापयामास

दापयां चकार

 दापयामासिव

दापयां चकृव

 दापयामासिम

दापयां चकृम
2nd Person दापयामासिथ

दापयां चकर्थ

 दापयामासथुः

दापयां चक्रथुः

 दापयामास

दापयां चक्र
3rd Person दापयामास

दापयां चकार

 दापयामासतुः

दापयां चक्रतुः

 दापयामासुः

दापयां चक्रुः

 

Middle

Singular Dual Plural
1st Person आसां चक्रे आसां चकृवहे आसां चकृमहे
2nd Person आसां चकृषे आसां चक्राथे आसां चकृध्वे
3rd Person आसां चक्रे आसां चक्राते आसां चक्रिरे

Back to Top

Examples of the Perfect Tenses

The following table from Hart pp. 163-164 shows the root form of the verb followed by its 3rd singular perfect, 3rd plural perfect, and 3rd singular perfect causative:6

Root 3rd Sing. Perfect 3rd Pl. Perfect 3rd Sing. Perf. Causative
अधी अधीये आधीयिरे आध्यापयामास
अस् आस आसुः none
अवगम् अवजगाम अवजग्मुः अवगमयामास
आज्ञा none none आज्ञापयामास
आनी आनिनाय आनिन्युः आनाययामास
आप् आप आपुः आपयामास
आस् आसां चक्रे आसां चक्रिरे आसयामास
आह्वे आजुहाव आजुहुवुः आह्वापयामास
इ इयाय ईयुः आपयामास
इष् इयेष ईषुः एषयामास
उपगम् उपजगाम उपजग्मुः उपगमयामास
कृ चकार चक्रुः कारयामास
कृष् चकर्ष चकृषुः कर्षयामास
कॢप् चकॢपे चकॢपिरे कल्पयामास
क्री चिक्राय चिक्रियुः क्रापयामास
क्रीड् चिक्रीड चिक्रीडुः कचरीडयामास
गम् जगाम जग्मुः गमयामास
ग्रह् जग्राह जगृहुः ग्राहयामास
चुर् चोरयामास चोरयामासुः चोरयामास
जन् जज्ञे जज्ञिरे जनयामास
जि जिगाय जिग्युः जापयामास
जीव् जिजीव जिजीवुः जीवयामास
ज्ञा जज्ञौ जज्ञुः ज्ञापयामास
त्यज् तत्याज तत्यजुः त्याजयामास
दह् ददाह देहुः दाहयामास
धाव् दधाव दधावुः धावयामास
नश् ननाश नेशुः नाशयामास
निग्रह् निजग्राह निजगृहुः निग्राहयामास
निर्दिश् निर्दिदेस निर्दिदिशुः निर्देशयामास
नी निनाय निन्युः नाययामास
पठ् पपाठ पपठुः पाठयामास
पश् ददर्श ददृशुः दर्शयामास
पा पपौ पपुः पाययामास
पीड् पिपीड पिपीडुः पीडयामास
प्रच्छ् पप्रच्छ पप्रच्छुः प्रच्छयामास
प्रतिक्ष् प्रतीक्षां चक्रे प्रतीक्षां चक्रिरे प्रतीक्षयामास
प्रयुज् प्रयुयुजे प्रयुयुजिरे प्रयोजयामास
ब्रू none none none
भू बभूव बभूवुः भावयामास
भृ बभार बभ्रुः भारयामास
मन् मेने मेनिरे मानयामास
मुच् मुमोच मुमुचुः मोचयामास
मृ7 ममार मम्रुः मारयामास
यज् ईजे ईजिरे याजयामास
यम् ययाम येमुः याययामास
लभ् लेभे लेभिरे लम्भयामास
लिख् लिलेख लिलिखुः लेखयामास
वच् उवाच ऊचुः वाचयामास
वद् उवाद ऊदुः वादयामास
वस् उवास ऊषुः वासयामास
वह् उवाह ऊहुः वाहयामास
विद् (to exist) none none none
विद् (to know) वेद विदुः वेदयामास
विधा विदधौ
विदधे		 विदधुः

विदधिरे

 विधापयामास
विश विवेश विविशुः वेशयामास
वृत् ववृते ववृतिरे वर्तयामास
वृध् ववृधे ववृधिरे वर्धयामास
शंस् शशंस शशंसुः शंसयामास
शक् शशाक शेकुः शाकयामास
श्रु शुश्राव शुश्रुवुः श्रावयामास
सेव् सिषेवे सिषेविरे सेवयामास
स्था तस्थौ तस्थुः स्थापयामास
स्पृश् पस्पर्श पस्पृशुः स्पर्शयामास
स्मृ सस्मार सस्मरुः स्मारयामास
हन् जघान जघ्नुः घातयामास
हस् जहास जहसुः हासयामास
हा जहौ जहुः हापयामास

 

Back to Top

The Perfect Participles

There are both an active and middle perfect participle but the middle is almost never seen in classical Sanskrit. The active participle is only formed with verbs that have a simple perfect but is never formed from verbs that have a periphrastic perfect. It is made by adding –वंस् to the weak form of the perfect stem. This becomes –उस् in weak forms, –वत् for pāda ending, –वान् in the masc. nom. singular, and –उषि in the feminine. The declension of विद्वांस् “someone who knows” is:

Masculine/Neuter

Case Singular Dual Plural
Nom. विद्वान् / विद्वत् विद्वांसौ / विदुषी विद्वांसः / वद्वांसि
Acc. विद्वांसम् / विद्वत् विद्वांसौ / विदुषी विदुषः / वद्वांसि
Instr. विदुषा विद्वद्भ्याम् विद्वद्भिः
Dat. विदुषे विद्वद्भ्याम् विद्वद्भ्यः
Abl. विदुषः विद्वद्भ्याम् विद्वद्भ्यः
Gen. विदुषः विदुषोः विदुषाम्
Loc. विदुषि विदुषोः विद्वत्सु
Voc. विद्वन् / विद्वत् विद्वांसौ / विदुषी विद्वांसः / वद्वांसि

Feminine

 

Case Singular Dual Plural
Nom. विदुषी विदुष्यौ विदुष्यः
Acc. विदुषीम् विदुष्यौ विदुषीः
Instr. विदुष्या विदुषीभ्याम् विदुषीभिः
Dat. विदुष्यै विदुषीभ्याम् विदुषीभ्यः
Abl. विदुष्याः विदुषीभ्याम् विदुषीभ्यः
Gen. विदुष्याः विदुष्योः विदुषीणाम्
Loc. विदुष्याम् विदुष्योः विदुषीषु
Voc. विदुषी विदुष्यौ विदुष्यः

 

The middle perfect participle is almost never encountered in classical Sanskrit. It is formed by adding –आन to the weak form of the perfect stem. It is declined like देव, फलम्, and सेना.

Back to Top

Footnotes

1Whitney, p. 295-296.

2These include the rules for reduplication for Class III verbs with the rules specific to the simple perfect being indicated with an asterisk.

2aThat is when the semi-vowels य, र, or व are transformed into their corresponding vowels.

3The first and second person singular take the guṇated first form, and the first and third person singular take the vṛddhied second form. See section above on the strong and weak forms for the perfect root.

4For verb stems ending in –आ, –ऐ, –ओ, and –औ, the ending is –औ.

5Note that saṃdhi makes the first instance a single continuous “word,” while the second instance becomes two separate words.

6While Hart separates the form of the helping verb “आस” from the perfect stem, I have written them here continuously as this is the form it would most likely be encountered in texts.

7The root मृ takes the middle throughout the present system, but takes the active in the perfect.